Yama says to Nachiketas in Kath II.15, "Om, i.e., God is the highest seat to which men attain in what is called emancipation (Moksha). It is characterized by the realization of God. It is full of all bliss and devoid of all pain. All the Vedas have for their main

The learned desire to reach Him by concentrating their mind upon Him and by proclaiming His glory. I tell thee briefly, O Nachiketas, that that seat is this Brahma"

[This sacred word, Om, connotes Him. Yoga, I,1:27.

'Om is the name of the all-pervading Brahma' Yajurveda XL 17.
'Om is the name of Brahma.' Taittiriyaranyaka VII. 8.

Men of steadfast wisdom see Him who is invisible, incapable of being grasped or comprehended, without family connections and caste, without organs of sight and hearing, without hands and feet, eternal, all-pervading, omnipresent, the most subtle, immutable and the source of all beings. Mundak I.5, 6.

God's essence being all-pervading, that seat is attainable by all men at all times and places. As the eye is able to exercise its function in the space filled by the sun's light, so man is capable of of attaining that seat everywhere and always, for, God exists in everything and at all times. Moksha being the best possible object of desire, the learned seek to obtain it."

Vyasa also, has an aphorism on this subject in his Vedanta. 'God is the subject matter of all the Vedas, because such is the appropriate interpretation of all texts. Vedanta I.1.4.

Its purport is that God is the subject dealt with by the Vedas, at some places in express terms, at others by implications (parampra, lit. traditionary explanation). Hence the ultimate topic of the Vedas is God alone.

The Yajurveda, VIII, 36 says: there exists no other object superior to the Supreme being. God supports all creatures and He is, therefore, Prajapati - the Lord of creatures, pervades all the worlds and bestows the highest bliss on all things. He has filled the creation with the three lights - the fire, the sun and electricity - to illumine it. He has created the sixteen Kalas or the 16 Kalas exist in Him.

He is Akshara whose name is Om. God is called Akshara because He never perishes and because He pervades the moving and the not-moving creation. All the Vedas and the Shastras and the whole universe itself have God alone as the chief subject of their exposition, Mandukyopanishad.

God is, therefore, the chief topic of all.

A secondary sense is never to be preferred to the primary one, for, according to the dictum of the grammatical commentary, the Mahabhashya. 'When an action can be accomplished by the help of a primary as well as of a secondary rule, it ought to be accomplished by the help of a primary a well as of a secondary rule, it ought to be accomplished by the help of the primary rule.

The second subject matter of the Vedas, called the action-portion, is concerned with activities only. There is such a close connection between the internal or mental and the external or physical activities that the acquisition of learning and knowledge would remain incomplete without the help of action.

Action is of many kinds, but its chief divisions are only two. The first aims at the achievement of the highest end of human existence, viz., the attainment of Moksha through the performance of God's worship, praise and prayer, resignation and obedience to His will, by doing righteous deeds and be acquiring knowledge. The second

When it is performed with the ultimate object of securing worldly prosperity and enjoyment and mundane happiness, it is called action attached to desire. It brings in its train the tasting of the fruit of birth and death. To the first class belongs the performance of the Yajnas, the Agnihotra to the Asvamedha - in which one has to burn in fire ingredients (after they have been duly clarified) which are fragrant and sweet and possess tonic and curative properties, with a view to purify the air and the rain water. A Yajna is productive of happiness to the whole world.

To the second class belong such actions, as the production of foodstuffs and articles of clothing, the invention and manufacture of conveyances, machines, tools and implements, etc., which are performed for the successful working of the social order. These, for the most

In this we are supported by the 1st and 8th aphorisms of Pada 3, Adhyaya 4 and Purva Mimansa. They purport to say that the duty of the perfomer of a Yajna is threefold, viz., to collect the ingredients (of homa), to purify them and to consume them in fire. The ingredients are of four kinds as mentioned above, viz., fragrant, sweet, tonic and curative.

It is imperative that they should be so prepared and purified as to produce the best results. For instance, in order to prepare good curry fragrant ghee is poured into a ladle and heated over the fire, and when smoke begins to rise, the ladle is, thrust into the vessel containing the curry, the mouth of vessel is closed and the curry is stirred about. Then the smoke, like the vapor that had risen before, is condensed as

Hence it is said in the Aitareya Brahmana, I:2, that a Yajna in which a learned man burns the purified ingredients in fire in the aforesaid manner conduces to the good of all mankind. A Yajna is performed eulogizing its result is to ward off evils. Good results flow from a Yajna only when it is performed with purified ingredients in a proper manner and by pure and holy men and not otherwise.

We read in the Shatapatha V.3, that smoke and vapor are produced by fire. When fire enters into trees, medicinal herbs, water and other substances it disintegrates them and

When after the ascent of smoke into the higher regions a sufficient quantity of watery vapor is collected clouds begin to form and from these masses of vapor rain to begins to fall. Then the annual plants, barley, etc., are produced.

From them is produced food, from food semen, and from semen the bodies (of living beings). For this reason all these are said to be the progeny of fire.

We read in the Taittiriyopanishad that from that self (atman) sprang ether (Akasha), from ether air, from air fire, from fire water, from water earth, from earth herbs, from herbs food, from food seed, and from seed man. Man thus consists of the essence of food. Ananda Valli I,2. Again, "He performed

Here food is called Brahman (the Great) because it is the chief cause of the continuance of life. Happiness can accrue to the living beings from pure food, air and water, but not, if they are impure.

There are two agencies at work for the purification of food, air and water, viz.,

1. Divine
2. Human.

As a consequence of this, strength intellect, prowess, energy, fortitude, courage and other qualities become of a mediocre type because it is a philosophical truth that as is the cause, so is its effect. This does not, however, argue a defect in God's creation; for, bad odors and other nuisances are mostly the creation of man. He being the author of bad odors and other nuisance, it becomes incumbent on him to remove them.

It is a divine commandment that a man ought to speak the truth and ought not to tell lies. Whenever transgresses, it becomes a sinner and suffers pain in accordance with the law of God. Similarly, this commandment also, that man ought to perform a Yajna, had been promulgated by God. Whoever, therefore, violates it, commits sin because he omits to do an act which is productive of universal good. He must consequently

Men collect together elephants and other animals for their own pleasure and hence the stink caused by these animals must be put down to the account of men's pleasure-seeking proclivities. In this way all bad odors which contaminate the air and rain water are produced by the agency of human beings. They alone ought, therefore, to remove them.

Of all living beings man alone is able to know good and evil. Manhood of man consists in the possession of the thinking faculty. Of all living beings man alone has been created with a mind, i.e., with a capacity of acquiring knowledge.

By a peculiar arrangement of the molecules of the organs of the human body God has made them fit for being used as instruments for acquiring knowledge. Man alone, and no other animal, therefore, is capable of knowing right and wrong and of doing righteous

Q. - But the fragrant substances such as musk, etc., are destroyed by being thrown into fire; how can be said that a Yajna is productive of good? On the other hand, if these good things be given to men, etc., to eat and be utilized other wise they would yield better results than homa. What is then the sue of performing Yajna?

A. ~ Nothing is ever utterly annihilated. What is called destruction (nasha) is merely the passing from a perceptible state into an imperceptible one. I admit eight kinds of cognition (darshana).

Acharya Gotama lays down in the Nyaya Shastra that direct cognition is that true and unerring knowledge which springs from the contact of a sense organ with an object; for example, on looking at a man from close quarters one becomes certain that what one is looking at is a human being and nothing else.

The knowledge of an object based on its resemblance to another object is called analogy; for example, when we say that Yajnadatta resembles Devadatta we convey knowledge by means of similarity between the two men.

The knowledge springing from the verbal authority is that which produces conviction in respect of things, seen and unseen, by means of words; for example, the saying that emancipation (moksha) is obtained through knowledge. Nyaya I. 1-4, 5, 6, & 7,

Historical tradition is the statement of a trustworthy person, as for instance, the statement that there was a war between the Devas and the Asuras.

Possibility is the happening of a thing through the instrumentality of a person or at a place; for example, the statement that father and mother beget children is a possible statement, but, if a person were to make statement, that the hair of the moustache of Kumbhakaran stood 4 kosa erect and that his nose was 16 kosa long, it would be impossible and, and consequently, false.

Non-existence is the absence of a thing certain place and time; for example, a man asks another to fetch a pitcher. That other person finding that the pitcher was non-existent at that place fetches it from another place where it exists. Nyaya II. 2:1 &2.

Suppose a man thoroughly pulverizes a clod of earth and throws it up in a strong wind into the sky with the force of his arm. It will be said that the clod had been destroyed. (Naasha), it being no longer visible to the eye. The word Naasha is formed by adding the suffix (Dhan) to the root (nasha) to become visible. Hence Nasha (disappearance) is nothing but the state of becoming imperceptible to the external sense - organs.

When atoms (of a thing) are separated from one another the pas beyond the sphere of perception and are no longer seen with the eye, but when they combine with one another and assumes gross form they again cross the path of vision, because a gross object alone can be perceptible to the eye.

When a thing is so divided and sub-divided that it is incapable of further division its (last sub-divisions) are called atoms (paramanu). They can not be perceived with the senses, but they continue to exist in space all the same.

Q. - But, if the sole object of performing a Yajna be to purify air and rain water that object would be gained by keeping the fragrant substances in the house. Where is then the use of so much fuss?

A. ~ No, that would not do; for, the air would not become lighter and rarefied and would not ascend into the sky, but, would remain where it is and there would be no room for the external air to come in. besides this, the disease - destroying effects also would not ensue in the presence of half foul and half pure air. But, when fragrant and the like substances.

The air, being laden with the atoms of fragrant substances through homa, would ascend into the sky, purify rain water and also increase the quantity of rain.

Rain, in its turn, would produce plants of pure qualities and so on, and thus the quantity of happiness in the world would be immensely augmented. There can be doubt about this. Such effect would never be produced by fragrant air which ahs not come in contact with fire.

The performance of homa is, therefore, most assuredly good. Again, when a person burns fragrant substances in fire the air which comes in contact with it effects the nasal organ of a man standing at a distance (from the place where they are being burnt) and he feels that the air is redolent of sweet smell. Thus, we come to know that the air carries with it good as well as bad odors. But, as the man moves further away his organ of smell ceases to be affected by

There are many other advantages of homa which thinking men will be able to discover by bestowing a little consideration on the subject.

Q. - If the object of performing homa be only this much it would be gained by the act itself, for what purpose, then, are the mantras recited at the time of homa.

A. ~ That has its own purpose to serve. As we perform the homa with the hands, see it with the eyes and receive its sensation of touch through the skin, sow we recite the Vedic Mantras with the tongue and praise unto God. The recitation of the mantras imparts us knowledge of the advantages of homa and of the existence of the Deity and the repetition of the mantras

Q. - But what would be the harm if passages from other books than the Vedas were recited?

A. ~ The above mentioned object would not be achieved by reciting passages from other books because, not being the word of God, they would not be absolutely true. It is to be borne in mind that wherever and whatever truth is to be found it has proceeded from the Vedas and all untruth has its origin outside them and has not proceeded from God.

On this says the Manu smriti: Sire (Manu)! Thou alone art acquainted with the purport and true meaning of the duties prescribed by the Vedas which are the ordinance of the unthinkable, unfathomable, and self-existent God." I.3.

"The eternal beings and is a means of securing happiness to them, hence, we assign to it the highest place of honor." XII. 97 & 99.

Q. - But, is it a sine qua non in the performance of a Yajna that one should prepare a a Vedi by digging the ground, erect a Yannashala, provide the Yajna vessels such as Pranita, etc., and Kusha grass, and secure the service of Ritvijas, etc.

A. ~ Out of these one should provide only what is needful and reasonable and nothing else. For example, it is necessary that a Vedi should be dug into the ground, for, in a Vedi,

Similarly, the construction of a particular number of bricks and thus would be helpful in the acquisition of a knowledge of arithmetic. In the same way, other acts also have their own use and value. But, to say the placing of the Pranita, etc., in a particular way is productive of merit or that to place it in any other way is sinful, is fanciful and false, for, here, the cause of sin being absent, there can be no sin.

Those acts only should, therefore, be done that are reasonable and necessary for the success of a Yajna; for, if they would be left out the Yajna would not be successful.

Q. - What does the word devata stand for when it is used in the connection with a Yajna?

A. ~ For those objects only which are spoken

In action-portion the word devata signifies the Vedic mantras, the meters Gayatri and Agni, etc., as in the above quoted verse. They are so called because they explain the method of doing an act. A mantra which reveals the meaning of the word Agni is said to have Agni for its devata.

Similarly, those verses, which bring to light the meaning of the words Vata Surya, Chandraama, Vasus, Rudras, Adityas, Maruts, Vishvedevas, Vrihaspati, Indra, and Varuna are said to have those substances for their devata. God, whos authority is most trustworthy, has meant those verses to contain a reference to those substances.

(1)When a mantra describes the ways of successfully performing the arts or the Yajna from the Agnihotra to the Ashva medha - that mantra is technically called devata in the Veda or when a mantra describes emancipation or union with God, which is the ultimate object of all action, it as well as its meaning is given the name devata.

(2) When a devata forms the chief subject of the exposition in a mantra it is called daivata. The names of substances and their explanations occurring in a mantra become the signs or marks of a devata e.g., in the 7th mantra of Chapter

Now we come to the tests for finding out the devata of a mantra of which some have been mentioned already and the rest will be described hereafter. God is the Rishi - the all-seeing. When God, desiring to impart instruction about a particular object, describes its properties in a mantra that mantra is said to have that object as its devata.

The mantra itself which gives a comprehensive exposition of a asubstance becomes the connotation of the word devata. The word 'richah' comes from the root 'rich' to praise. The mantras (richas) are called 'devatas' because the learned describe and expound and bring to light all the true sciences through them. Such mantras are of three kinds: (1) those whose meaning is secret, (2) those whose meaning is obvious and (3) those

These then are the meanings of the word devata in the action portion.

Again we quote from the Nirukta VII, 4. What is the test for finding out the devata of a mantra in which the name or the meaning of its devata does not specifically occur? In the case of such mantras, in which the devata is not visible on the surface, it should be understood to be Yajna or a component part of Yajna. But, as regards those mantras which cannot have Yajna for their devata, the latter is Prajapati - God. This is the opinion of the Yajnikas. There is a difference of opinion on this point.

The Niruktas say that such mantras are naraashansa, i.e., the treat of men. The Laukikaas

The reason is that father, mother, etc., are worthy of respect and benefactors and so possess the shining virtues of a devata. The verses of the Vedas have success in Yajna as their chief object and hence they have the latter for their devata.

To summarized, in the action portion, the devatas are the mantras composed in the Meters, Gayatri, etc., the ordinance of God, Yajna, its component parts, God, man, desire, learned men, holy guest, mother , father or preceptor. But in Yajna the devatas are only God, and the Vedic Mantra.

The Nirukta VII.15, says that the devas are so called because they give, shine, illumine or instruct or because they have their abode n the regions of light.

[To give away is to relinquish one's own proprietary rights over a thing and to convert it into the property of another.] God, learned men and other human beings are called devas because they bestow gifts on others. The sun, etc., are said to be devas because they shine and illuminate.

The mother, the father and the preceptor are named devas because they instruct others. God is deva because He is the illuminator of illuminators, and because He resides in the solar rays, in the sun itself and in the praanas.

It has been said in the Kathopanishad V. 15., that there the sun shines not nor does the moon, nor dot he stars, nor even these lightnings, what to say, then, of this fire. All these shine after that shining One. All this shines with His light.

In Yajurveda XL 4, the word ceva means the five senses hearing, etc., and the manas. The senses and the manas are called devas because they convey to us the sensations of sound, touch, color and form, taste and smell, and enable us to know the truth and the untruth.

Theword deva is the same as devata. The word devata is formed by adding the suffix 'tal' to deva as an intensive according to Ashtadhyayi.

Definition (stuti) is to describe the good, as well as the evil qualities of a thing, i.e. to give a true description of its good as well as bad properties, e.g., to say that this sword when struck cuts extremely well, it is harp-edged and does not break even if it is bent like a bow would be its stuti. Similarly, the statement that the

The forgoing remarks about the word devas or devata are applicable to all instances where it may occur. This application, however, is restricted to the action portion only. In the worship and the knowledge portions and also in the Nishkaama section (in which actions are enjoined to be performed without attachment to their results) the word deva connotes God only, because there He alone is the object of our worship and seeking.

In the Sakaama section (in which acts are done for the sake of results) devata means God also, because there we pray to God to give us the objects of our desires. This is the only difference between the Nishkaama and the Sakaama sections of the action portion. The true purport of the Vedas is that reference to God should not be omitted anywhere int hem. We refer to Nirukta VII.4, which purports to say:

Therefore, all the other devatas, of which we have spoken or of which we shall speak hereafter are only secondary limbs, as it were, of the one God. They are manifested in only a small portion of His might.

They are action-born or self-born because they owe their existence to divine acts or to divine Might. God is the resting place fo these devatas. He is the causse of their movements. He is their weapon with which they prevail and He is their arrow, the destroyer of all misery. God is all in all of the devas, i.e., Heis their creator, sustainer, ruler and benefactor. There is nothing nobler or higher than God.

We quote here some mantras from the Vedas on this subject.

"Know full and completely the thirty three devas. God - the Lord of creatures - is their over Lord and Master. He keeps all created things under control." Yajurveda XIV. 31

"Over whose riches the thirty three devas keep a constant watch. Who can now know his riches which are protected by the thirty three devas."

"The thirty three devas fulfill their allotted functions in God's creation (anga -lit'. body). Some learned in the Vedas know those thirty three dvas." AtharvaX23.4-23 & 27.

Now we give a quotation from the Shatapatha Brahmana. It is a speech of Yajnavalkya to Shakalya.

The devas are only thirty three, viz., the 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas, 1 Indra and 1 Prajapati.

The fire, the earth, the air, the intermediate regions between the earth and the sun, the firmament or the regions illumined by his rays, the moon and the constellations - these eight are given name of Vasus. [Dyaus is the sun's light illuming the regions round about the sun or the earth. Agni is the terrestrial fire]. They are called Vasus because the hold or contain all created things and because they are the abode of all things. The fire, etc., being the dwelling place of all are called Vasus.

Ten praanas (vital airs) within the body and the Atma, as the eleventh, are called Rudras. The ten Praanas are:- Praanah - in breathing, Apaanah - out-breathing, Vyaanah - the wind

These are called Rudras because when they go out of the mortal body at the time of death they cause the relatives of the deceased to weep. Being the cause of weeping (Rudana) they are called Rudras.

The twelve months beginning with Chaitra (March) and ending with Phalguna (February) are called Adityas. They are so called because the revolve swallowing up the whole world form all sides or because in running up their course they drag on all created beings nearer and nearer to their life's end at ever moment or because by their wheel-like revolution they bring about the decay of the parts of all created things and ultimately their death.

Yajna is the animals. It is called Prajapati. It is the cause of the prosperity of all men and is, therefore, called the Lord of creation (Prajapati) in a metaphorical sense.

All these together make up the thirty-three devas. This epithet is given to them from a secular point of view. The word deva is derived from the root 'Divu' to give, shine, etc., and they are called devas because they possess the attributes of gift, light, etc.

The three lokas also are called the three devas. The author of the Nirukta says that the three Dhamans (lokas) are locality, name and form of existence - Nirukta IX. 28. The Shatapatha XIV 4. says: "These are the three lokas) worlds. This world (earth) is the speech, the intermediate space (antariksha) is

Food and breath (Praanah) are the two devas.

The electric force (Adhyardha) called the Sutraatman, which pervades this cosmos and causes the whole world to grow, is also a deva. Shatapatha XIV 5.

He alone, the One, the Supreme Lord, the thirty fourth Deva is the object of worship of all men. He is proclaimed as the established conclusion of the Vedas. The Aryas who follow the path laid down in the Vedas have always worshipped, do worship and will ever worship Him alone as their Deity.

By constituting another being as the Lord of their desire and the object of their worship men only give an unmistakable proof of their being non-Aryas. For, says the Shatapatha XIV. 4 "worship only Atma (God).If one were to say to one who declares another than Atman as God that he will weep for what is dear to him, very likely it would be so. Let him worship Atman (God) alone a dear. He,

From this historical record the Aryas it is evident that they were never the worshippers of any one except God.

All this leads to the conclusion that the word deva connotes all the ten meanings of the root divu, viz., sport, desire to conquer, activity, luster, praise, joy, dejection, sleep, beauty and progression, in whichever of the two senses it may be used.

But all the other devas shine with the light of God. He alone is self-effulgent. Of these sport, desire to subjugate the wicked, taking part in activities, sleep, dejection are chiefly the worldly activities. The devas, fire, etc., are the means of success in such activities.

In the other devas they exist in a secondary sense alone, depending as they do on the divine power. Hence dva-hood in God is primary and in the other devas secondary only.

Some persons object that as the Vedas sanction the worship of both animate and inanimate objects their authority becomes doubtful. This is erroneous. God has planted inherent qualities in all the objects e.g., He has endowed the eye with the capacity to receive the sensations of form, light and color. Hence he alone is able to see who has got eyes and not he who is blind.

This objection is as futile as the one as to why God does not enable us to see form and color without the aid of the eye and the sun. The word Puja (honor) means to treat properly and its synonyms are,

Again, the devatas are divided into two classes, viz., those that have a body and those that have no corporeal frame. Both classes have already been dealt with. The Taittriyopanishad refers to 5 devas who are to be honored and worshipped by all men.

Let thy mother be to thee like unto a deva;
Let thy father be to thee like unto a deva;
Let thy preceptor be to thee like unto a deva;
Let thy guest be to thee like unto a deva. VII. 11.

Her the mother, the father, the preceptor and the guest are the devas who have a corporeal body, but God is altogether devoid of it. Similarly, among the devas mentioned before, the Vasus, viz., the fire, the earth, the sun, the moon and the stars, etc., are the devas which have a body and the eleven Rudras, the twelve Adityas, the Manas, the five intellectual senses, the air, the intermediate regions between the earth and the sun, the bright firmament and the Mantras are the devas which are devoid of a body. Thunder and lightning (electricity) and Vidhiyajna are embodied as well as bodiless.

In this way devatas are of two kinds, viz., those with a body and those without a body. Their deva-hood consists only in their being of use in our actions and transactions. Similarly, the mother, the father, the preceptor and the guest possess deva-hood only in so far as they afford us help in our affairs of the world and

For these reasons the opinion, which has been held and is still held by some of the modern Aryasn and Europeans that he Vedas sanction the worship of physical devas alone is altogether false.

Equally false is also the opinion of many Europeans who say that the Aryas were originally the worshippers of physical devatas and in course of long ages they gradually advanced to the knowledge that God alone was deserving of worship.

For, the fact is that the Aryas have been worshipping God since the beginning of creation under various names such as Indra, Varuna,Agni, etc., in accordance with the method laid down in the Vedas.

We shall now give a few quotations in support of our view.

AGNI MEDE PUROHITAM YAJASYA DEVA MRITVIJAM, HOTAARAM RATNA DHAATAMAM.

"I praise Agni (God) the great high priest, the presiding deity of Yajna, the creator of the seasons, the great giver, the Lord of wealth."

In the course of our commentary on this verse we have quoted the Rig Verse II, 3, 222, 6. the remarks of the Nirukta Daivata Kaanda 18 and Yajuh verse XXXII. 1

They call him Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Agni, glorious suprana Garutman. To Him who is One the sages give various titles: they call Him agni, Yama and Matarishvan.

The sages speak in many ways of this very Agni - the great Being who is one.

Take the Rik verse I, 5, 15, 5, the nine verses, VIII, 7, 3, 1-9 and the Yajuh verses XXXII, 29. 10, 11, XXXI, 18; XL, 5, 8; XVII. 17, 18 19, and many others of similar character.

Him we invoke for aid, who reigns supreme, the Lord of all that moves or stands, inspirer of the soul. That Pushan may promote the increase of our wealth, our keeper and our guard infallible for our good.

In the beginning there was God, the source of light, He was the one Lord of all created beings. He upholds this earth and the heavens. To him - Prajapati - we shall offer our prayers.

He, who is giver of spiritual knowledge and giver of strength, whom the world worships, whose command all learned men obey, whose shelter is immortality, whose shadow (want of protection) is death. To Him - the Prajapati - we shall offer our prayers.

He encompasses existing creatures, the worlds, the quarters and the sub-quarters; He is the manifestor of the first states of matter, and the Lord of moksha. He alone can approach Him who surrenders his self to Him.

He makes a gift of all these words, the Seer, the Bountiful Lord, the All-pervading, our father. His wish is wealth, He pervades everything the first as well as the last.

Like kine unmilked we call aloud O Glorious Lord (Indra) the Hero, to Thee. Thy vision encompasses the highest heavens. Thou art the Lord of all that moves and of that which moves not.

See the following two verses of the Sama Veda, the following seven verses of the Rig Veda and the following and many other verses of the Atharva Veda. Of these verses some have been explained before, the others will be explained hereafter. This not being the proper place we do not explains them here.

There was neither death nor its opposite, nor was there any sign to distinguish between night and day. The One was there existing by His own nature, without agitation. Apart from Him there was nothing whatever.

He, from whom this creation first proceeded, upholds it. He is the supervisor of even the highest heaven. He verily

Tell me who is that Prajapati on whom, as their foundation, earth, and firmament and sky are set and in whom, as their appointed place, rest fore and moon and sun and air?

The following quotations are taken from the Upanishads, vix., from the Katha Valli Upanishad, Valli 2:20; Valli 3:15; Valli 4:10; Valli 5:12 7 13; from the Mundaka Upanishad II. 1.2. & II. 2.7; from the Mandukyopanishad Mantra7; from the Taittiriyopanishad Brahmananda Valli I.1; and from the Chhandogyopanishad VII. 23 and VII. 24.1

He is the eternal among the eternal, the conscious among the conscious. He, though one, fulfils the desires of many. The wise, who realized him within their self, to them belongs eternal peace, not to others.

He is not one whose consciousness is functioning inwards (i.e., in the sleeping state) [i.e., in the wakeful state], nor one whose consciousness is midway between the two states. He is not cloud of intelligence, nor possesses of consciousness, nor yet devoid of it. He is invisible, above human control. Incomprehensible. He has no marks. He is unthinkable, indescribable, conscious of self in self, unconditioned by the world, calm, all-bliss, without a seond. His state is the fourth. He is the Self, He ought to be known.

Sir! In what does the Infinite rest?
In its own greatness.

He defines the Chaandas as that composition which contains commonplace ideas and is devoid of originality and which is a rhapsody proceeding from the mouth of an ignorant man due to spontaneous suggestion.

He guesses that he earliest date of the Chhandas cannot be prior to 3100 years and that no earlier date than 2900 years can be assigned to the composition of the Mantras. In support of his opinion he quotes such verses as Rigveda I.1.1.2.

This also is contrary to the truth. He does not know the meaning of the word Hiranyagarbha. According to Shatapatha VI-7-2.2, the word Hiranya means Jyotih and Jyotih means immortality (emancipation). According

Hence Hiranyagarbha means one who is effulgent and wise by nature. It means God who has in His control (carries in the womb as it were) the light of immortality (emancipation), the luminous globes of the sun, the glory, good renown, the fame, the soul, the sun and the fire, etc.

In this way the use of the word Hiranyagarbha demonstrates the noble character and the eternity of the Vedas and not their modernity. Consequently, the opinion of the Professor, that the use of the word Hiranyagarbha

God says, "I have been, I am, I shall ever be praised and worshipped by all rishis of the past, the present and the future. The rishis are (1)Men who see the mantras., (2) pranas, and (3) reasoning. Again, those, who having learnt the Vedas and other Shastras themselves, instruct other may be called the ancient and those, who receive instruction from them, the modern rishis. God is to be praised and worshipped by such rishis.

In this connection we give a quotation from the Nirukta XIII. 12, the purport of which is

One has a curiosity to know the meaning of Mantras which appear as collections of inflected and conjugated terms, words and letters related to one another as adjectives and substantives in a general way. One should ask one's intellect such questions as : "What can be the meaning of this Mantra"? One should exercise one's intellect and reasoning for completely understanding the meaning of the Mantras.

The Mantras cannot be interpreted in an off-hand manner on hearing them or with the help of reasoning alone. They ought to be explained with due regard to their context, i.e., with reference to what precedes as well as to what follows.

But a man, who is not a rishi, who has not performed the austerities (Tapas), whose mind is not pure and who does not possess learning, can not realized the meaning of the Mantras. Unless a man is fully acquainted with the context of the mantras,

Once upon a time men saw that they were left without the rishis, i.e., the seers of the Mantras. Thereupon they repaired to the learned and asked them as to who should be the rishi among them. The learned gave them reasoning as their rishi, so that by knowing the truth from falsehood them might be able to understand the meaning of the Vedas and told them by way of reply that reasoning would be the rishi among them. By reasoning here is meant that kind of it whose only solicitude is the elucidation of the meaning of the Vedas and which leads to a knowledge of the sense of the Mantras.

This demonstrates that when a thoroughly learned man explains the meaning of the Vedas his explanation becomes the explanation of a rishi and an exposition of the Vedas. But when a man of mediocre learning and intellect,

Hence Agni (God) alone is to be worshipped and praised by all rishis, of all times - the ancients, the moderns and those of future generations. No object other than God is ever to be worshipped, adored and praised by any man. By explaining the Mantra. Rigveda I.1.1.2, in this way no blame of modernity can be fastened upon the Vedas.

Once more, according to the Aitareya Brahmana. II.4, the Pranas are the rishis. Hence the words, "ancient and modern rishis," in the above Mantra would respectively mean the Pranas as they existed in the causal state in primeval times and the Pranas as they exist in the cause substances. The meaning of the Mantra would, therefore, be that God is to be worshipped and praised by all learned men

The opinion ( of Prof. Max Muller) that there is a difference between a Mantra and a Chhandas is also wrong, for, the words Chhandas, Vedas, Nigama, Mantra, and shruti are synonymous. Of these the world Chhandas has many other senses, e.g., it means meters, the Vedic meters such as the Gayatri, etc.. and the common meters such as the Arya, etc., and sometime it signifies independence.

The Acharya Yaska on this says in the Nirukta VII. 12, that a mantra is so called because it provides food for thought, a chhanda is so called because it praises, a Yajus is so called because it is useful in a Yajna and Saman is so called because it is a richa possessing rhythm.

The word Chhandas, therefore, means the Vedas. The Shatapatha says in VIII. 2, "These devatas are doubtless the Chhandas and in VIII.3, "The Chhandas are the life-sustaining devas, for, by them everything living is sustained here.' The word Mantra is formed by adding the suffix 'ghan' to the root 'matri' to hold private consultation according to the aphorism 'asmadhalascha'. The veda is called Mantra because it contains

The Veda is called Mantra because all men can acquire a knowledge of all realities in and through it. The verses, Rigveda I.1.1.1, etc., also, being parts of the Veda are called Mantras. The meters Gayatri, etc. and the mantras which are composed in them are called devatas because they throw light on all subjects. For this reason it is said "the Chhandas are the devas".

They hold together all actions and sciences - God has bound (made steadfast) all actions by means of the Chhandas and Mantras i.e., the Vedas. Because the Chhandas cover or embrace all sciences and all sciences are correctly known by their means the Vedas are called Chhandas and because they are the means of knowledge they are called Mantras. The words Chhandas

The Veda is called Nigama because men acquire a correct and complete knowledge of all sciences through it. In the Ashtadhyayi II.4.80. II.4.6 and VI.4.9, the words Mantra, Chhandas and Nigama are used as synonyms. It is thus established that the words Chhandas and Mantra are synonyms and consequently the words of one, who says that they are different from each other, can be of no authority whatever.

They are Vedic glosses and are not the words of God bu merely the works of rishis and the products of human intellect also, because other rishis than Katyayana have refuse to call them by name Veda.

The Brahmanas contain narratives of the events of human history andmention men (who took part in them) by their names. The mantra portion contains no such narratives. Someone might here object that the names of rishis are seen occurring in the Yajurveda (III. 62) etc., and, so far s the narration of historical events goes,

The above mantra, contains only the following prayer to God: "O Lord of the universe! May our eyes called Jamadagni and out Prana called Kurman last for three terms of life i.e., for three hundred years. May our life be full

May we retain the vigor of our senses and mind unimpaired and remain happy throughout our trebled lives so that we may be able to enjoy them. The mantra inculcates another lesson also and it is that by obeying the good rules of Brahmacharya, etc.. men can prolong their lives three times. It is, therefore, evident that in the Vedas the words Jamadagni, etc., are mere connotative terms.

Theree is not the slightest trace of history in the mantra portion. Consequently, Sayanacharya is in error whenever he interprets a mantra as referring to historical events in his commentary, the Vedaprakasha.

Now we proceed to show that Itihasa, Purana, etc., are the names of the Brahmanas

Those portions of the Brahmanas which describe the state existing prior to the creation of the world are called Purana, e.g, "In the beginning, my dear, there was that only which is, one only, without a second." Chhandogyopanishad VI.2.1

According to the Achary Yaska a Narashansi is that story which contains a eulogy on or by men. Nirukta VII.6. The word Narashansi should be applies to such stories only as are contained in the Brahmanas, the Nirukta, etc., and to no other. In the above quotation, the Brahmanas are the things named and the words itihasa, etc., are only their names, eg. It is said: "Know the Brahmanas only as Itihasas, Puranas, Kalpas, Gathas and Narashanis". The gloss on the Nyaya Darshana II. 2. 60. is also our authority.

The gloss explains this to mean that the propositions of the Brahmanas either lay down mandatory rules or contain explanatory remarks or supplementary repetitions. A mandatory rule commands the doing of a thing II.2.62.

The gloss says that a mandatory rule is that which commands or impels, e.g., the following proposition (of the Brahamanas) is a command or an injunction. "A mand who desires Svarga (happiness) ought perform the Agnihotra." And explanatory remark

The gloss on this says that a commendatory remark (stuti) points out the good results that flow from obeying a mandatory rule. Its object is the creation of faith in the doer so that he may have faith in that which is commended and by hearing its results the listener be moved to act in accordance wit it, e.g., the proposition that "the learned by performing the Yajna conquered all and obtained every thing; consequently, he who performs the Yajna, conquers all and obtains every thing."

A dissuasive remark (ninda) sets forth the bad results of violating a command. Its object is to serve as a deterrent so that men may not do that which is censured Its example is the following prosposition. "The Jyotishtoma is the first of the Yajnas. He, who performs another Yajna without performing it first, falls into a pit or his Yajna becomes useless." Prakriti

The Prakriti and purakalpa come under the category of Arthavada (explanatory remark) because they also describe the good and bad results of an action and also because they are sometimes helpful in explaining the meaning of a mandatory rule.

"Ann\uvada, i.e., explanatory repetition is the repetition of a mandatory rule." Nyaya II. 2. 64. According to Vatsyamana it is of two kinds, viz., (i) repetition of the words and (2) repetition of the sense. "The proofs (pramanas) are not four only because historical tradition,

These quotations also are an authority for the view that by the word Itihasa, etc., we should understand the Brahmanas alone and no other books.

Again, the Brahmanas are only the commentaries on the Vedas and not the Vedas themselves. This shown by the fact that Brahmanas first quote the Vedic verses Ishetvorje, etc., and the proceed to explain them, vide Shatapatha I.7.

There is again the following passage in the Mahbhashya: "Of what words? Of the

If the author had intended to include Brahmanas among the Vedas he would have surely given examples from them also. As the author of the Mahabhashya believed that the Mantra portion only was the Veda, he quoted portions of the first verses of the four Vedas by way of examples of the Vedic words. On the other hand, the examples which he has given of the

In the following aphorisms the Acharya Panini has treated the Vedas and the Brahmanas as different from one another. "The object of the verb 'div' having the sense of dealing or gambling takes the second case affix in Brahmana literature." Ashtadhyayi II.3. 60.

In the Chhandas sixth case is used diversely with the force of the fourth case affix. "Ibid II. 3.62. The affix 'nini' comes in the sense of 'enounce by him' after a word in the third case in construction, when it denotes a Brahmana or Kalpa work enounced by ancient sages." Ibid IV. 3. 105.

The last aphorism quoted above shows that the Brahmanas and Kalpas which are the works of the ancient sages Brahma, etc., are Vedic glosses only. And for this reason they

Again, the term Brahma is synonymous with Brahmana; vide Shat patha XIII. 1 where Brahma is used as a synonym of Brahmana. See also the Grammatical commentary, the Mahabhashya V.1.1, where it is said that the words Brahman and Brahmana have the same meaning.

The Brahmanas are the Vedic glosses composed by the Brahmana seers who were learned in the four Vedas.

As to the question whether the Brahmanas are or are not of equal authority to the Vedas, we say that they are not entitled to have the same authority as the Vedas, for, not being the word of God, they are of authority only in so far as they are consistent with the Vedas. They, however, possess a secondary or derivative authority.

We read in the Rigveda I.6, 15,5. "We invoke God for our protection. He is the Ruler and Maker of the Universe and of all that moves and does not move. In Him the intellect finds satisfaction. He imparts strength and vigor. O Supreme Lord! Protect through Thy grace our knowledge and riches which thou causest to grow. Do thou guard and sustain us always without remiss so that we may obtain all kinds of happiness.

On this subject see also RigvedaI.2,7,5, which we have already explained in the chapter.

The Yajurveda XXXII. 11, says: "The Supreme Lord pervades the Bhutas [the great elements, Akasha, etc.] through and through. He pervades the directions East, etc. and sub direction South East, etc. He pervades the heavenly bodies, the sun, etc. and circumscribes them and knows them completely.

He is the maker of the subtle primary substances. The soul, which by means of its inner faculties (Antah karana) and powers attains and realizes the presence of and holds communion with the all-blissful and Free Lord, obtains emancipation.

The Atharvaveda X.4,7, 38, says : "He alone should be known as Brahma, who is.

There are the following verses of the Atharva Veda XIII.4.16 to 18, 20 and 21 which say: "There is neither a second, nor a third, nor a fourth, nor a fifth, nor a sixth, nor seventh, nor an eighth, nor a ninth, nor a tenth God.

He pervades the Universe and therefore, it also is bound up with Him - there being a close connection between the pervader and the pervaded. He suffers all. He is one, one and one only. He the Omnipotent Being is the only support of all the devas, the above

They affirm the existence of one God only and absolutely prohibit the worship of a second God. Being the indwelling ruler of this two-fold Universe, the animate and the inanimate, He alone sees it. There is no one else to see it. Of Him, however, not one can be said a seer.

The word one occurs thrice in one of these verses. This means that there is no second God equal to or greater than Him. It also indicates that here can be no other God of the same or of a different genus, nor can there be a division in His essence. Thus the existence of a second God is absolutely denied.

He is one and one only. He is the one intelligent principle the like of whom there does not exist. He alone without the help of another has made this world and supports it because He is All-powerful.

They worshipped me as the Almighty and adorable God and followed the Dharma laid down by me. You also must do the same so that you may know the Dharma inculcated by the Vedas and have no doubts about it -Rigveda VIII. 8-49-2

Ye men! Let the end of your deliberations (Mantra) be true knowledge and the good of all beings and may they be harmonious, free from dissensions and characterized by impartiality and fairness.

Mantra means deliberation in which by means of mutual consultation, conversation

A number of persons should combine together for making investigation into objects in respect of which they possess not certain knowledge. Every one should give his individual opinion and then the best opinion which forms, as it were, the essence of all the opinions and which is beneficial to all men and possesses the marks of truth should be collected and all men should understand it thoroughly and should always conform to and act upon it.

By so doing happiness of the right sort will increase day by day amongst all men. With a view to secure freedom to all men and to augment the stock of their happiness you (men) should frame such uniform, impartial and good laws and social rules as may disseminate justice, conduce to advancement and enlightenment of all men, help on the acquisition of noble qualities as celibacy, purity of character and devotion

You should keep your minds under your control so that you may be inclined towards good and be averted from bad qualities. [Manas (mind) consists of Samkalpa - desire or inclination and Vikalpa - hatred or aversion]. May there be concord and harmony among your thinking faculties. [Chitta - thinking faculty - is that with which one remembers past experiences and meditates upon God and Dharma].

All men should put forth as much effort for terminating the suffering and n creasing the happiness of all living beings as they would put forth for their own sake. Let all of your exertions be for the good and happiness of another. I bestow my grace upon those men who consider all living beings as their own selves and do good to others and make them happy. I command to follow the

"Ye men! May you always employ all of your powers in matters of Dharma for increasing the amount of happiness without coming into conflict with one another. May your exertions and enthusiasm and al that is noblest and best in you have mutual good and happiness of mankind in general as their end.

May you so act that this Dharma promulgated by me may never disappear. May your mental activities be full of love for and free from ill will towards others and let perfect agreement reign among them. May you so co-operate with

All men should so conduct themselves that all may be happy and free. Let there be complete harmony and unison among your mental activities. All men should apply their minds to and bestow full consideration upon the matter in hand and should then translate their thoughts into action. Rigveda VIII.8,49.4.

The activities of the mind according to the Shatpatha XIV.4, are the following:-
Kama - a desire for noble qualities; Samkalpa - a desire to adopt the means for acquiring them; Vichikitsa - doubt which is raised

In Yajurveda XIX. 77, God enjoins men to follow Dharma. 'All men should in all conditions, and at all times deep their faith firm in Dharma, and no faith whatever in Adharma. He has through His all-knowing intellect drawn a line of distinction between

Likewise He has implanted want of faith in Adharma, untruth and injustice. God commands men to have no faith in Adharma. All men should, therefore, make utmost efforts to resolutely fix their minds on Dharma and to turn them away from Adharma.

There is another verse - Yajurveda XXXVI.18, which exhorts all men to have friendly relations with all living beings at all times and in all conditions. All men should accept this divinely ordained Dharma and should pray God so that they may become steadfast

Thus should all men accept this - the only divinely ordained Dharma.

AGNE BRATAPATE BRATAM CHAARISHYAAMI TACHCHHAKEYAM TANME RAADHYATAAM EDAM AHAMANRITAAT SATYAM UPAIMI. Yajurveda 1.5, lays down that all men should always seek the Divine help; for without it one can neither know the true Dharma nor successfully practice it.

In the practice of Dharma one should depend on Divine help and prayer and on one's own exertions, for, God never shows His favor to a man who is inactive and lazy. God showers His mercies on that man alone and on no other, who has a desire to perform the Dharma, exerts himself and has a yearning after God's grace, just as He makes him alone see who has got eyes and not him who is blind. God provides man with the means of doing a thing successfully even before he can have an occasion to use them. Man should take as much utility out of an object as it is capable of yielding, but at the same time he should possess a desire for the help of God.'

The Shatapatha I.1, also says: 'One

Yajurveda XIX, 30 says that man knows the truth when he possesses a desire to know the truth and to act truthfully. One should have faith in truth alone but never in untruth.

A man who acts truthfully obtains high worth. By becoming worthy he obtains high rank by means of good qualities and becomes universally respected and successful. This his reward. It can be achieved by means of good qualities and actions only.

By observing virtuous vows such as Brahmacharya he gains respect in his as well as in others; estimation. This creates an abiding faith in truthful conduct, for, truthful conduct alone is the source of respect. When this faith goes on constantly increasing, man by its means ultimately attains God and emancipation.

The following verses of the Atharvaveda reveal the characteristics of Dharma.

'God had made men the possessors of volition, exertion, energy and righteous (Dharmie) conduct. They should, therefore, become wise by studying the Vedas and by acquiring knowledge of God. They should always seek the protection of God and depend on strenuous action.

'May all men be endowed with truth which is incalculated in the Vedas and Shastras, which is free from error and stands the tests of direct cognition, etc. Let them make supreme efforts to cover themselves with highest glory resplendent with the light of right conduct and auspicious qualities, and having the resources of a universal empire at it service. May the e masters of fair renown for the acquisition of noble qualities and truthful conduct and may they shed its luster on all sides.

'May all me find their fullest contentment in their own property and in their good qualities

'Let all their activities follow the dictates of justice. Let them show courage, fearlessness and fortitude in acting truthfully. Let them be not elated with joy at gain and pleasure and dejected with sorrow at loss and pain in which they may find themselves involved for the time being. They should, on the other hand, try their best to alleviate their suffering and should bear it with resignation. Let them root out the diseases of the body and the mind and render their limbs strong and their intellects firm and acquire strength requisite

Let them spend their best energies in acquiring glories of imperial rule. This alone is the Dharma promulgated by the Vedas, based on justice, free from partiality and bias, associated with truthful conduct and universally beneficial. All men should follow it always. What has gone before as well as what comes after is an exposition of this very Dharma. God has revealed the Dharma in these and the following verses for the good of all mankind.

'The special qualifications of a Brahmana, viz., the acquisition of the highest learning, qualities and actions and the dissemination of virtuous, etc., should always be given

The Vaishyas, i.e., the merchants, should have free access to all quarters of the globe and should be afforded every protection so that they may increase the wealth by means of trade and commerce. Let noble qualities shine forth and let a pure desire for virtuous traits of character be cultivated. Let men achieve fair renown. Let there be proper permanent arrangements for the teaching, learning and diffusion of true knowledge.

Men should have a desire to acquire, what they do not possess, by just means, should protect and preserve and improve and increase what they possess and , lastly, should spend their riches in righteous actions. In this fourfold way they should always strive to increase their wealth and provisions and happiness.

'Men should prolong their lives and become physically strong by leading a chaste life,

Let what they recite or hear being recited, be always for glorifying the name of God or for the acquisition of Godlike qualities and let them make themselves endowed with good renown. By means of Pranayama, i.e., control of breath they should strengthen and purify Prana i.e., in-breathing or the air which is drawn into the body from outside, and Apana, i.e., out-breathing or the air which is breathed out of the body.

By residing in a healthy place and by the forcible ejection and the withholding of the breath they should acquire strength of body and mind. They should thoroughly know the ocular, aural and inferential and other proofs and with their help should acquire correct and complete knowledge.

They should always worship God and should always speak the truth that has stood the test of the proofs, the direction cognition etc., exactly as it exists in their consciousness; and should always believe the same.

They should offer adoration to God and perform universally beneficial Yajnas and with proper care and energy should apply their minds, words and acts, to the collection of materials necessary for the completion of both.

The should properly educate, train and provide for the comforts of their children and the (subjects of the) empire. They should also train their domestic animals - the elephants, horses, etc. [The frequent use of the conjunction 'and' - Cha - in these verses signifies that men

We shall now give some extracts from the Taittiriya Shiksha bearing on the subject of Dharma. All men should always act according to the essential requirements of Dharma as explained therein. They are briefly as follows:

To beget children in accordance with Dharma, to bring them up in true Dharma, to educate them and to make them cultured; to conserve virile powers and to have sexual intercourse at the proper time (ritu)

The opinion of the Acharya Rathitara is that a man ought always to speak the truth. The Acharya Pauraushishthi lays down that a man should always act in accordance with dictates of true knowledge and Dharma by observing the rules such as rita (divine worship, moral behests, etc.)

The Acharya Nako Maudgilya, however, holds that the noblest act is to study and teach the Vedas, that there is no other work of Dharma among men better than this and that it is the highest religious exercise.

The preceptor on the conclusion of his disciple's study of the Vedas should instruct him in the Dharma in the following words:-

"O disciple! Always speak the truth, follow the Dharma whose distinguishing mark is veracity. Never forsake the reading and the teaching of the Shastras. Serve your teacher and procreate children. Acquire proficiency in true Dharma and maintain and enhance your

The mothers, etc., should address their sons as follows:-

"O sons! Follow us in our good works only, but never follow usif we happen to commit sinful acts. Associate with those persons only among us who may be learned and possess knowledge of God. You should always have faith in what they say, but never trust the words of others.

Men should always make a gift of such objects as learning, etc., with love without love, with grace, with modesty, moved by fear or for redeeming their promise. To make a gift is far better than to receive it from others. O disciples! If ever you be troubled with a doubt in respect of an act or a line of conduct you should approach the learning who know God, are free from bias and yogins

This is the inner teaching of the Vedas. All men should give this exhortation (to their sons and disciples.) The worship of God who is all existence, all consciousness and all bliss should be performed with the greatest faith and devotion, but should be preceded by such conduct as has been mentioned above. There is no other way to worship Him." Taittiriya Aranyanka VII9. 11.

"Also, O man! Believe that tapas is to worship God who pervades all regions. The opposite of this cannot be tapas. The distinctive mark of Dharma is no other than truthful speech and conduct, because through truth men attain to worldly happiness and to that uninterrupted bliss called moksha (emancipation) of good men is truthful conduct. Good men, therefore, always take delight in truth and tapas is, accordingly, to act according to the

The characteristic of the learned is mental activity. The True (God) makes the wind blow and the sun shine. Men attain to honor by means of truth and not otherwise." The words Manasa rishayah in the next mean vital airs, knowledge, etc. Taittiriya Aranyaka X. 62 & 63.

"Truth realized in conduct ever conquers. Through it man always becomes victorious and through untruth i.e., action opposed to Dharma he comes to defeat. The Devayana i.e., the path of the learned, viz., the road of

"That alone is to be known as Dharma which has been enjoined to be performed by the Vedas and that which has been prohibited by God is Adharma having no substance in it (anartha). It ought to be given up, therefore, by men." Purva Mimansa. I.1.2.

"That alone is to be recognized as Dharma which leads to the desired happiness in this

All these extracts are only an amplification (of the teachings) of the Vedas. God has thus preached the Dharma for the sake of all men in a great number of the Vedic Mantras. This is the only Dharma for all men. There is no second Dharma different or separate from it.